託福閱讀 事實信息題中的因果邏輯題
事實信息題是託福閱讀中考查比重最大的題型之一。毫不誇張地說，對於任何一個分數段的學生來說，事實信息題的完成情況，就決定了閱讀的得分情況。下面小編給大家帶來託福閱讀-事實信息題中的因果邏輯題 。
託福閱讀-事實信息題中的因果邏輯題
筆者結合自己的教學經驗先來說一下學生在做事實信息題過程中出現過一些“狀態”：
1. 做題時間長。中國的考生遇到了事實信息題，不喜歡定位，而是喜歡習慣性的把相應的段落的從頭至尾地讀一次。閱讀的信息較多，閱讀時間長。而一場閱讀托福考試的閱讀量對於那些原本閱讀速度就慢的學生來說，用這種思路做題，很有可能是做不完的。
如例1：OG: Applied Arts and Fine Arts
…Sculptures must, for example, be stable,which requires an understanding of the properties of mass ,weight distribution , and stress tings must have rigid stretchers so that the canvas will be taut, and the paint must not deteriorate, crack, or discolor. These are problems that must be overcome by the artist because they tend to intrude upon his or her conception of the work. For example, in the early Italian Renaissance, bronze statues of horses with a raised foreleg usually had a cannonball under that hoof. This was done because the cannonball was needed to support the weight of the leg. In other words, the demands of the laws of physics,not the sculptor’s aesthetic intentions, placed the ball there. That this device was a necessary structural compromise is clear from the fact that the cannonball quickly disappeared when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces(iron being much stronger than bronze) …
According to paragraph 2, sculptors in the Italian Renaissance stopped using cannonballs in bronze statues of horses because
A. they began using a material that made the statues weigh less
B. they found a way to strengthen the statues internally
C. the aesthetic tastes of the public had changed over time
D. the cannonballs added too much weight to the statues
在做這題時，學生要麼從段首讀到段尾，要麼就從“For example, in the early Italian Renaissance”讀到最後，事實上這樣都讀到了過多的信息，做題時間過長。
2. 被無關信息干擾。在筆者的教學經驗中發現，中國考生在做題過程中，最容易衝動地選擇一些含有原文中出現過的信息的選項，而這些選項往往跟題目並沒有任何的關聯性。根本原因就是考生喜歡不習慣定位，喜歡通讀全段。這樣一來，浪費時間是一方面，另外一方面，選錯的可能性又增大了。
如例2：OG Online Exam: Lascaux Cave Paintings Q11
Perhaps so much time has passed that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images, but their mystique only adds to their importance. Certainly a great art exists, and by its existence reveals that ancient human beings were not without intelligence, skill, and sensitivity.
According to paragraph 6, why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?
A. Keeping the paintings a mystery will increase their importance.
B. The artists hid their tools with great intelligence and skill.
C. Too many years have gone by since the images were painted.
D. Answering the question is not very important to scholars.
在做這個題目中，不少同學看到這一段非常短，於是索性從頭讀到尾，在各種糾結中選了各種選項。
3. 邏輯混亂，或忽視了邏輯關係。當然在託福閱讀的教學過程上中，經過一定的引導，學生還是慢慢地學會去定位。儘可能地做到“提速與減負”，但是在這個過程中，學生們還是會做錯。原因則在於，在題目中出現了一些邏輯關係，而學生則往往邏輯混亂，甚至是忽視了這些邏輯關係。如果利用好了這些邏輯關係，則能幫助學生更快的定位，更準確地找到答案。
再如例3：OG Practice Set 6: Swimming Machines: Q6
Paragraph 6: Because they are always swimming,tunas simply have to open their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills. Accordingly,they have lost most of the muscles that other fishes use to suck in water and push it past the gills. In fact, tunas must swim to must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant.
6. According to the passage, which of the following is one of the reasons that tunas are in constant motion?
A. They lack a swim bladder.
B. They need to suck in more water than other fishes do.
C. They have large muscles for breathing.
D. They cannot open their mouths unless they are in motion.
這個題目就會因爲邏輯混亂的問題，不少學生選擇D。
其實只要學生觀察這個題目的提問方式，我們還是能看出一些“門道”的：
1. According to paragraph 2, sculptors in the Italian Renaissance stopped using cannonballs in bronze statues of horses because
2. According to paragraph 6, why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?
3. According to the passage, which of the following is one of the reasons that tunas are in constant motion?
仔細閱讀這3 個事實信息題在提問方式方面的同性，不難發現，它們都在問because, why, 以及one of the reasons 等“原因”。那麼，在教學過程中，我會把這一類專門問因果邏輯的事實題單獨分出來，進行講解。引導學生注意，題目在問“原因”，也就是答案必須是原因。有“原因”就會導致一個“結果”。“結果”就是題目。這樣一來，學生就不難發現這樣一個公式：“原因(答案)+ 結果(題目) = 原文某一因果邏輯關係的句羣” 學生只要能利用“結果(題目)”回到文章中去定位，在定位詞的附近找表示“原因”的邏輯關係詞，也就能更快，更準地找到答案了。
當然課程進行到這裏，我會加入一些學生活動，讓學生先熟悉，或是回憶一些表“原因”的邏輯詞，如：because/because of, result from, owing to/ due to,as a result of, since, for, attribute to, thanks to, so…that…等。再結合學生的基礎補充一些隱性的因果邏輯詞，如：when, if, unless…
回頭來看一下之前的3 個題目
例1：OG: Applied Arts and Fine Arts
…Sculptures must, for example, be stable,which requires an understanding of the properties of mass ,weight distribution , and stress tings must have rigid stretchers so that the canvas will be taut, and the paint must not deteriorate, crack, or discolor. These are problems that must be overcome by the artist because they tend to intrude upon his or her conception of the work. For example, in the early Italian Renaissance, bronze statues of horses with a raised foreleg usually had a cannonball under that hoof. This was done because the cannonball was needed to support the weight of the leg. In other words, the demands of the laws of physics,not the sculptor’s aesthetic intentions, placed the ball there. That this device was a necessary structural compromise is clear from the fact that the cannonball quickly disappeared when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces (iron being much stronger than bronze) …
According to paragraph 2, sculptors in the Italian Renaissance stopped using cannonballs in bronze statues of horses because
A. they began using a material that made the statues weigh less
B. they found a way to strengthen the statues internally
C. the aesthetic tastes of the public had changed over time
D. the cannonballs added too much weight to the statues
利用“ sculptors … stopped using cannonballs…” 定位到“the cannonball quickly disappeared”這一句話，在這個關鍵詞的附近找到了“when” 這個表“原因”的隱性邏輯詞，只要仔細閱讀when 後面的信息“when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces (iron being much stronger than bronze)”便能快速確定答案爲B，而不是在閱讀了整段後，浪費了大量的時間後，還在思考，到底是B還是似乎原文中也提到的D?
例2：OG Online Exam: Lascaux Cave PaintingsQ11
Perhaps so much time has passed that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images, but their mystique only adds to their importance. Certainly a great art exists, and by its existence reveals that ancient human beings were not without intelligence, skill, and sensitivity.
According to paragraph 6, why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?
A. Keeping the paintings a mystery will increase their importance.
B. The artists hid their tools with great intelligence and skill.
C. Too many years have gone by since the images were painted.
D. Answering the question is not very important to scholars.
例2 中， 學生利用“questions about the paintings never be answered” 定位到“there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images”， 在附近找表“ 原因” 的邏輯詞：“so… that…”，“so…”後面接原因，從而得出答案應該選擇與原文“so much time has passed”意思一致，與時間相關的C 選項。而定位詞後出現的邏輯“but”引導的信息點，也就是類似於A選項的信息也因爲邏輯不對而被排除。
例3：OG Practice Set 6: Swimming Machines:Q6
Paragraph 6 : Because the yare always swimming, tunas simply have to open their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills. Accordingly, they have lost most of the muscles that other fishes use to suck in water and push it past the gills. In fact, tunas must swim to breathe. They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant.
6. According to the passage, which of the following is one of the reasons that tunas are in constant motion?
A. They lack a swim bladder.
B. They need to suck in more water than other fishes do.
C. They have large muscles for breathing.
D. They cannot open their mouths unless they are in motion.
最後， 例3 中， 用“constant motion” 學生往往會定位到2 處位置，第一處：“Because they are always swimming, tunas simply have to open their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills.” 第二處：“They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant.”題目問的是：“導致金槍魚constant motion 的原因是什麼”, 所以重點看錶示原因，也就是“since”後面的信息，就能得出A，而原文中第一句話則是說，always swimming (constant motion) 導致了一個結果：“金槍魚打開他們的嘴巴”，也就是讓學生糾結的D 選項犯了邏輯上的錯誤，即使這個選項中包含了原文中的信息，應該果斷被排除。
以上便是我的教學過程中，在講解事實信息題過程中，用到一些思路與方法。
託福閱讀之把握句間的因果關係詳解
託福想要拿高分除了積累大量詞彙和理解長難句之外， 把握句間關係也是非要重要的。
閱讀部分考生需要掌握的四大結構，他們分別是：
? classification
? comparison/contrast
? cause/effect
? problem/solution
以最後一個“問題/解決方法”爲例來感受下官方指南上的要求是如何體現在托福考試的練習題中的。
官方放出的練習題中有一篇講到“羅馬軍隊對不列顛的影響”。其倒數第二題爲一道句子插入題。被插入句是這樣的:“One solution was to keep them busy as sources of labor.”這句話的開頭“solution”一詞暗示着前文定會提到需要解決的”problem ”，而這一線索也成爲答對這道題的關鍵。這類題目背後的考點本質上就是對句間關係的把握。正所謂題型在變，關係不變。
所以，本文以官方指南爲基礎，結合真實考試要求，重點分析閱讀考試中三大句間關係，希望對正在備考中的學子們有所啓發。
句間關係1——因果關係
(涉及的託福閱讀題型有：細節題/修辭目的題/推理題/句子插入題)
因果關係在整個託福閱讀中的出鏡頻率非常高;曾有一個統計，在託福給出的官方練習題中，細節題中考察到因果關係的比例高達三分之一。所以，無論是從考試的角度，還是提高閱讀力本身，掌握因果關係在句子之間的體現都是非常重要的。
以很多學生們非常熟悉的一篇文章“The origin of theaters”爲例。有一道細節題問到考生爲什麼人們會逐漸放棄當時的“rituals”;在定位詞出現的句子中，我們會非常容易看到句子開頭有一個短語叫做“as a result ”;根據題目要求，答案的出處應該就在前一句話中。而只要能夠認識“detached“這個單詞，考生還是能比較順利地選出正確答案。
類似於“as a result ”這樣具有因果關係提示的詞組還有很多，寫作的時候也能派上用場，所以提醒各位考生一定要踏實地做好積累。比如“attribute X to Y”這個短語在官方練習題中就出現過三次，並且都是決定考生是否能讀懂文章的必備詞彙。
託福閱讀能力如何全面提高
一、問題形式
被考的文章中有一個詞或詞組被加亮，這個詞通常是一個代詞或名詞。指代題的形式如下：
The word (or phrase) X in the passage refers to
二、解題步驟
1.根據解題技巧確定答案
2.代入原文驗證，看語義、邏輯和語法上是否通順
三、基本原則
1.就近指代
所謂就近指代，就是被指代對象通常在指代詞前不遠處，如本句或上一句中。有時也出現在更前面的一句中。例如，
Large wind farms might also interfere with the flight patterns of migratory birds in certain areas, and they have killed large birds of prey (especially hawks, falcons, and eagles) that prefer to hunt along the same ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines. The killing of birds of prey by wind turbines has pitted environmentalists who champion wildlife protection against environmentalists who promote renewable wind energy. Researchers are evaluating how serious this problem is and hope to find ways to eliminate or sharply reduce this problem.
The phrase this problem in the passage refers to
interference with the flight patterns of migrating birds in certain areas
building ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines
the killing of birds of prey by wind turbines
meeting the demands of environmentalists who promote renewable wind energy
本題涉及的是一個詞組this problem.尋找這一詞組的指代對象時只需向上搜索就行。根據就近原則，前一句中的主語the killing of birds of prey by wind turbines可以初步確定爲答案。將其代入原文，符合語義和邏輯，因此第三個選項爲正確答案。第一個選項和第三個選項都和this problem相距較遠，而且代入時語義和邏輯上不通，因此爲干擾選項。
2.數格一致
被指代對象通常與指代詞在數(如單數或複數)和格(主格或賓格)兩方面相同。如單數代詞one指代單數名詞，複數代詞they指代複數名詞。
四、主要思路
1.主從複合句中的指代
在主從複合句中，第二句的代詞主語經常指代第一句的名詞主語。例如，
The fins are stiff, smooth, and narrow, qualities that also help cut drag. When not in use, the fins are tucked into special grooves or depressions so that they lie flush with the body and do not break up its smooth contours.
The word they in the passage refers to
qualities
fins
grooves
depressions
在這一例子中，從句so that they…中的代詞主語they指代主句的名詞主語the fins，因此第二個選項爲正確答案。
如果主從複合句中一個句子(可以是主句，也可以是從句)使用被動語態，包含被動語態的句子中的主語常指代另一句中的賓語。例如，
Similarly, a plant or animal cannot squander all its energy on growing a big body if none would be left over for reproduction, for this is the surest way to extinction.
The word none in the passage refers to
food
plant or animal
energy
big body
在本例中，if引導的從句使用了被動語態，代詞主語none指代前面主句中的賓語energy.因此，第三個選項爲正確答案。
2.並列動詞中的指代
如果一個句中有兩個並列的動詞，第二個動詞的代詞賓語經常指代前一個動詞後的名詞賓語。例如，
Artists are recognizing the distinction between public and private spaces, and taking that into account when executing their public commissions.
The word “that” in line 27 refers to
(A)contemporary art
(B)opportunity
(C)audience
(D)distinction
句中有兩個並列的動詞recognizing和 taking (into account)，其中recognizing的賓語是distinction，而taking 的賓語是that.根據上述技巧，that指代distinction.因此，(D)爲正確答案。
3.平行結構中的指代
平行結構主要包括some/most/many/such/each…, others…; not only…but also…; the former…the latter等。在這種結構中，平行結構兩個部分的兩個代詞經常指代同一對象：前一句中的名詞主語。例如，
In Southwest France in the 1940s, playing children discovered Lascaux Grotto, a series of narrow cave chambers that contain huge prehistoric paintings of animals. Many of these beasts are as large as 16 feet (almost 5 meters). Some follow each other in solemn parades, but others swirl about, sideways and upside down.
The word others in the passage refers to
chambers
paintings
beasts
parades
原文包含平行結構some…others，它們都指代前一句中的名詞主語beasts，因此第三個選項爲正確答案。
4.所有格的指代
所有格代詞經常指代其前面與其最接近的名詞。例如，
Folk-made objects give way to their popular equivalent, usually because the popular item is more quickly or cheaply produced, is easier or time saving to use, or lends more prestige to the owner.
The word “their” in line 1 refers to
(A)folk
(B)nations
(C)countries
(D)objects
根據所有格指代的解題技巧，their指代前面位置最近的名詞objects，因此(D)爲正確答案。
5.指代的接力棒現象
這一現象是指被考的代詞對應前面一個相同的代詞，而前面的代詞指代更前一句中的名詞。例如，
While such interviews can be highly entertaining, they are not necessarily an accurate indication of public opinion. First, they reflect the opinions of only those people who appear at a certain location.
The word “they” in line 8 refers to
(A)North Americans
(B)news shows
(C)interviews
(D)opinions
在這一例子中，第二句中的代詞they(reflect the opinions…)對應第一句中的they(are not…)，而第一個they指代前面從句中的名詞主語interviews，那麼第二個they也指代interviews，因此(C)爲正確答案。
除了上述情況之外，其他指代，如定語從句中(of which…, in which…, from which…)的關係代詞指代先行詞，from there結構中的there指代前面最接近的地點名詞等，限於篇幅，不再詳述。
